标准电极电势表

维基媒体列表条目

(重定向自標準電極電勢表

标准电极电势可以用来计算化学电池原电池的电化学势或电极电势。

标准电极电位是以标准氢原子作为参比电极,即氢的标准电极电位值定为0,与氢标准电极比较,电位较高者为正,电位较低者为负。

表中电极电势以以下條件測得((s):固體;(l):液體;(g):氣體;(aq):水溶液;(Hg):汞齊):

单击頂栏箭咀可将数据按元素符号、反應物、產物或标准电极电势值排序。

元素氧化劑半反應還原劑(V)[註 1]來源
-9
9
Ba+
+e⁻
Ba(s)−4.38[10][11][12]
Sr+
+e⁻
Sr(s)−4.10[13][10][11][14]
Ca+
+e⁻
Ca(s)−3.8[13][10][11][14]
Th⁴⁺+e⁻Th³⁺−3.6[15]
Pr³⁺+e⁻Pr²⁺−3.1[13]
3N
2
(g)+2H⁺+2e⁻
2HN
3
(aq)
−3.09[16]
Li+
+e⁻
Li(s)−3.0401[17]
N
2
(g)+4H₂O+2e⁻
2NH
2
OH
(aq)+2OH⁻
−3.04[16]
Cs+
+e⁻
Cs(s)−3.026[17]
Ca(OH)
2
(s)+2e⁻
Ca(s)+2OH⁻−3.02[13]
Er3+
+e⁻
Er2+
−3.0[13]
Ba(OH)
2
(s)+2e⁻
Ba(s)+2OH⁻−2.99[13]
Rb+
+e⁻
Rb(s)−2.98[18]
K+
+e⁻
K(s)−2.92[17]
Mg+
+e⁻
Mg(s)−2.93[12]
Ba2+
+2e⁻
Ba(s)−2.912[17]
La(OH)
3
(s)+3e⁻
La(s)+3OH⁻−2.90[17]
Fr+
+e⁻
Fr(s)−2.9[13]
Sr2+
+2e⁻
Sr(s)−2.899[17]
Sr(OH)
2
(s)+2e⁻
Sr(s)+2OH⁻−2.88[13]
Ca2+
+2e⁻
Ca(s)−2.868[17]
NH+
4
+e⁻
NH
4
−2.85
Eu2+
+2e⁻
Eu(s)−2.812[17]
Ra2+
+2e⁻
Ra(s)−2.8[17]
Yb2+
+2e⁻
Yb(s)−2.76[13][10]
Na+
+e⁻
Na(s)−2.71[17][19]
Sm2+
+2e⁻
Sm(s)−2.68[13][10]
No2+
+2e⁻
No(s)−2.50[13]
HfO(OH)
2
(s)+H₂O+4e⁻
Hf(s)+4OH⁻−2.50[13]
Th(OH)
4
(s)+4e⁻
Th(s)+4OH⁻−2.48[13]
Md2+
+2e⁻
Md(s)−2.40[13]
La3+
+3e⁻
La(s)−2.379[17]
Y3+
+3e⁻
Y(s)−2.372[17]
Mg2+
+2e⁻
Mg(s)−2.372[17]
ZrO(OH)
2
(s)+H₂O+4e⁻
Zr(s)+4OH⁻−2.36[17]
Pr3+
+3e⁻
Pr(s)−2.353[13]
Ce3+
+3e⁻
Ce(s)−2.336[13]
Er3+
+3e⁻
Er(s)−2.331[13]
Ho3+
+3e⁻
Ho(s)−2.33[13]
Al(OH)
4
+3e⁻
Al(s)+4OH⁻−2.33
Al(OH)
3
(s)+3e⁻
Al(s)+3OH⁻−2.31
Tb3+
+3e⁻
Tb(s)−2.28
H
2
(g)+2e⁻
2H
−2.25
Ac3+
+3e⁻
Ac(s)−2.20
Be+
+e⁻
Be(s)−2.12[12]
Cf2+
+2e⁻
Cf(s)−2.12[13]
Am3+
+3e⁻
Am(s)−2.048[13]
Cf3+
+3e⁻
Cf(s)−1.94[13]
Ca2+
+e⁻
Ca+
−1.936[17][13]
Am2+
+2e⁻
Am(s)−1.9[13]
Fm3+
+3e⁻
Fm(s)−1.89[13]
Be2+
+2e⁻
Be(s)−1.85
Rf4+
+4e⁻
Rf(s)−1.67[20]
U3+
+3e⁻
U(s)−1.66[21]
Al3+
+3e⁻
Al(s)−1.66[19]
Ti2+
+2e⁻
Ti(s)−1.63[19]
Bk2+
+2e⁻
Bk(s)−1.6[13]
ZrO
2
(s)+4H⁺+4e⁻
Zr(s)+2H₂O−1.553[17]
Hf4+
+4e⁻
Hf(s)−1.55[13]
Zr4+
+4e⁻
Zr(s)−1.45[17]
Ti3+
+3e⁻
Ti(s)−1.37[22]
TiO(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻Ti(s)+H₂O−1.31
Ti
2
O
3
(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻
2TiO(s)+H₂O−1.23
Zn(OH)2−
4
+2e⁻
Zn(s)+4OH⁻−1.199[23]
Mn2+
+2e⁻
Mn(s)−1.185[23]
Fe(CN)4−
6
+6H⁺+2e⁻
Fe(s)+6HCN(aq)−1.16[24]
V2+
+2e⁻
V(s)−1.175[25]
Te(s)+2e⁻Te²⁻−1.143[25]
Nb3+
+3e⁻
Nb(s)−1.099
Sn(s)+4H⁺+4e⁻SnH
4
(g)
−1.07
In(OH)
3
(s)+3e⁻
In(s)+3OH⁻−0.99[13]
SiO
2
(s)+4H⁺+4e⁻
Si(s)+2H₂O−0.91
B(OH)
3
(aq)+3H⁺+3e⁻
B(s)+3H₂O−0.89
Fe(OH)
2
(s)+2e⁻
Fe(s)+2OH⁻−0.89[24]
Fe₂O₃(s)+3H₂O+2e⁻2Fe(OH)
2
(s)+2OH⁻
−0.86[24]
TiO2+
+2H⁺+4e⁻
Ti(s)+H₂O−0.86
2H₂O+2e⁻H
2
(g)+2OH⁻
−0.8277[17]
Bi(s)+3H⁺+3e⁻BiH
3
−0.8[23]
Zn2+
+2e⁻
Zn(Hg)−0.7628[17]
Zn2+
+2e⁻
Zn(s)−0.7618[17]
Ta
2
O
5
(s)+10H⁺+10e⁻
2Ta(s)+5H₂O−0.75
Cr3+
+3e⁻
Cr(s)−0.74
[Au(CN)
2
]
+e⁻
Au(s)+2CN
−0.60
Ta3+
+3e⁻
Ta(s)−0.6
PbO(s)+H₂O+2e⁻Pb(s)+2OH⁻−0.58
2TiO
2
(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻
Ti
2
O
3
(s)+H₂O
−0.56
Ga3+
+3e⁻
Ga(s)−0.53
U4+
+e⁻
U3+
−0.52[21]
H
3
PO
2
(aq)+H⁺+e⁻
P([26]+2H₂O−0.508[17]
H
3
PO
3
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
H
3
PO
2
(aq)+H₂O
−0.499[17]
H
3
PO
3
(aq)+3H⁺+3e⁻
P([26]+3H₂O−0.454[17]
Fe2+
+2e⁻
Fe(s)−0.44[19]
2CO
2
(g)+2H⁺+2e⁻
(HO₂C)₂(aq)−0.43
Cr3+
+e⁻
Cr2+
−0.42
Cd2+
+2e⁻
Cd(s)−0.40[19]
SeO2−
3
+4e⁻+3H₂O
Se+6OH⁻−0.37[27]
GeO
2
(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻
GeO(s)+H₂O−0.37
Cu
2
O
(s)+H₂O+2e⁻
2Cu(s)+2OH⁻−0.360[17]
PbSO
4
(s)+2e⁻
Pb(s)+SO2−
4
−0.3588[17]
PbSO
4
(s)+2e⁻
Pb(Hg)+SO2−
4
−0.3505[17]
Eu3+
+e⁻
Eu2+
−0.35[21]
In3+
+3e⁻
In(s)−0.34[25]
Tl+
+e⁻
Tl(s)−0.34[25]
B3+
+3e⁻
B(s)−0.31
Ge(s)+4H⁺+4e⁻GeH
4
(g)
−0.29
Co2+
+2e⁻
Co(s)−0.28[17]
H
3
PO
4
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
H
3
PO
3
(aq)+H₂O
−0.276[17]
V3+
+e⁻
V2+
−0.26[19]
Ni2+
+2e⁻
Ni(s)−0.25
As(s)+3H⁺+3e⁻AsH
3
(g)
−0.23[25]
AgI(s)+e⁻Ag(s)+I
−0.15224[23]
MoO
2
(s)+4H⁺+4e⁻
Mo(s)+2H₂O−0.15
Si(s)+4H⁺+4e⁻SiH
4
(g)
−0.14
Sn2+
+2e⁻
Sn(s)−0.13
O
2
(g)+H⁺+e⁻
HO
2
•(aq)
−0.13
Pb2+
+2e⁻
Pb(s)−0.13[19]
WO
2
(s)+4H⁺+4e⁻
W(s)+2H₂O−0.12
P)+3H⁺+3e⁻PH
3
(g)
−0.111[17]
CO
2
(g)+2H⁺+2e⁻
HCOOH(aq)−0.11
Se(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻H
2
Se
(g)
−0.11
CO
2
(g)+2H⁺+2e⁻
CO(g)+H₂O−0.11
SnO(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻Sn(s)+H₂O−0.10
SnO
2
(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻
SnO(s)+H₂O−0.09
WO
3
(aq)+6H⁺+6e⁻
W(s)+3H₂O−0.09[25]
P)+3H⁺+3e⁻PH
3
(g)
−0.063[17]
2D+
+2e⁻
D
2
(g)
−0.044
Fe3+
+3e⁻
Fe(s)−0.04[24]
碳(甲酸)HCO₂H(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻HCHO(aq)+H₂O−0.03
2H⁺+2e⁻H
2
(g)
−0.00≡0
AgBr(s)+e⁻Ag(s)+Br⁻+0.07133[23]
S
4
O2−
6
+2e⁻
2S
2
O2−
3
+0.08
Fe
3
O
4
(s)+8H⁺+8e⁻
3Fe(s)+4H₂O+0.085[28]
N
2
(g)+2H₂O+6H⁺+6e⁻
2NH
4
OH
(aq)
+0.092
HgO(s)+H₂O+2e⁻Hg(l)+2OH⁻+0.0977
Cu(NH
3
)2+
4
+e⁻
Cu(NH
3
)+
2
+2NH
3
+0.10[25]
Ru(NH₃)₆³⁺+e⁻Ru(NH₃)₆²⁺+0.10[21]
N
2
H
4
(aq)+4H₂O+2e⁻
2NH+
4
+4OH⁻
+0.11[16]
H
2
MoO
4
(aq)+6H⁺+6e⁻
Mo(s)+4H₂O+0.11
Ge4+
+4e⁻
Ge(s)+0.12
C(s)+4H⁺+4e⁻CH
4
(g)
+0.13[25]
HCHO(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻CH
3
OH
(aq)
+0.13
S(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻H
2
S
(g)
+0.14
Sn4+
+2e⁻
Sn2+
+0.15
Cu2+
+e⁻
Cu+
+0.159[25]
HSO
4
+3H⁺+2e⁻
SO
2
(aq)+2H₂O
+0.16
UO2+
2
+e⁻
UO+
2
+0.163[21]
SO2−
4
+4H⁺+2e⁻
SO
2
(aq)+2H₂O
+0.17
TiO2+
+2H⁺+e⁻
Ti3++H₂O+0.19
Bi3+
+2e⁻
Bi++0.2
SbO+
+2H⁺+3e⁻
Sb(s)+H₂O+0.20
CO
2
(g)+4H⁺+4e⁻
C(s)+2H₂O+0.205
AgCl(s)+e⁻Ag(s)+Cl
+0.22233[23]
H
3
AsO
3
(aq)+3H⁺+3e⁻
As(s)+3H₂O+0.24
GeO(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻Ge(s)+H₂O+0.26
UO+
2
+4H⁺+e⁻
U4+
+2H₂O
+0.273[21]
At
2
+e⁻
2At
+0.3[13]
Re3+
+3e⁻
Re(s)+0.300
Bi3+
+3e⁻
Bi(s)+0.32
VO2+
+2H⁺+e⁻
V3+
+H₂O
+0.34
Cu2+
+2e⁻
Cu(s)+0.340[25]
鐵氰[Fe(CN)
6
]3−
+e⁻
[Fe(CN)₆]₄⁻+0.36
Tc2+
+2e⁻
Tc(s)+0.40[13]
O
2
(g)+2H₂O+4e⁻
4OH⁻(aq)+0.40[19]
H
2
MoO
4
+6H⁺+3e⁻
Mo3+
+2H₂O
+0.43
Ru2+
+2e⁻
Ru(s)+0.455[13]
Bi+
+e⁻
Bi(s)+0.50
CH
3
OH
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
CH
4
(g)+H₂O
+0.50
SO
2
(aq)+4H⁺+4e⁻
S(s)+2H₂O+0.50
Cu+
+e⁻
Cu(s)+0.520[25]
CO(g)+2H⁺+2e⁻C(s)+H₂O+0.52
I
3
+2e⁻
3I
+0.53[19]
I
2
(s)+2e⁻
2I
+0.54[19]
[AuI
4]
+3e⁻
Au(s)+4I
+0.56
H
3
AsO
4
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
H
3
AsO
3
(aq)+H₂O
+0.56
[AuI
2
]
+e⁻
Au(s)+2I
+0.58
MnO
4
+2H₂O+3e⁻
MnO
2
(s)+4OH⁻
+0.59
Rh+
+e⁻
Rh(s)+0.600[13]
S
2
O2−
3
+6H⁺+4e⁻
2S(s)+3H₂O+0.60
鐵(二茂鐵)Fe(C
5
H
5
)
2
+e⁻
Fe(C
5
H
5
)
2
(s)
+0.641[29]
CH₃CO₂Ag+e⁻Ag+CH₃CO₂⁻+0.643[13]
H
2
MoO
4
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
MoO
2
(s)+2H₂O
+0.65
苯醌+2H⁺+2e⁻+0.6992[23]
O
2
(g)+2H⁺+2e⁻
H
2
O
2
(aq)
+0.70
Tl3+
+3e⁻
Tl(s)+0.72
鉑氯PtCl2−
6
+2e⁻
PtCl2−
4
+2Cl
+0.726[21]
H
2
SeO
3
(aq)+4H⁺+4e⁻
Se(s)+3H₂O+0.74
Rh3+
+3e⁻
Rh(s)+0.758[13]
PtCl2−
4
+2e⁻
Pt(s)+4Cl
+0.758[21]
Fe3+
+e⁻
Fe2+
+0.77
Ag+
+e⁻
Ag(s)+0.7996[17]
Hg2+
2
+2e⁻
2Hg(l)+0.80
氮(硝)NO
3
(aq)+2H⁺+e⁻
NO
2
(g)+H₂O
+0.80
FeO2−
4
+5H₂O+6e⁻
Fe
2
O
3
(s)+10OH⁻
+0.81[24]
[AuBr
4
]
+3e⁻
Au(s)+4Br
+0.85
Hg2+
+2e⁻
Hg(l)+0.85
MnO
4
+H⁺+e⁻
HMnO
4
+0.90
2Hg2+
+2e⁻
Hg2+
2
+0.91[25]
Pd2+
+2e⁻
Pd(s)+0.915[21]
[AuCl
4
]
+3e⁻
Au(s)+4Cl
+0.93
MnO
2
(s)+4H⁺+e⁻
Mn3+
+2H₂O
+0.95
[AuBr
2
]
+e⁻
Au(s)+2Br
+0.96
[HXeO
6
]3−
+2H₂O+2e⁻
[HXeO
4
]
+4OH⁻
+0.99[30]
氮(硝)HNO
2
+H⁺+e⁻
NO(g)+H₂O+0.996
H
6
TeO
6
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
TeO
2
(s)+4H₂O
+1.02[31]
Br
2
(l)+2e⁻
2Br
+1.065
Br
2
(aq)+2e⁻
2Br
+1.087[19]
氮(硝)NO
2
(g)+H⁺+e⁻
HNO
2
+1.093
IO
3
+5H⁺+4e⁻
HIO(aq)+2H₂O+1.13
[AuCl
2]
+e⁻
Au(s)+2Cl
+1.15
HSeO
4
+3H⁺+2e⁻
H
2
SeO
3
(aq)+H₂O
+1.15
Ir3+
+3e⁻
Ir(s)+1.156[13]
Ag
2
O
(s)+2H⁺+2e⁻
2Ag(s)+H₂O+1.17
ClO
3
+2H⁺+e⁻
ClO
2
(g)+H₂O
+1.18
[HXeO
6
]3−
+5H₂O+8e⁻
Xe(g)+11OH⁻+1.18[30]
Pt2+
+2e⁻
Pt(s)+1.188[21]
ClO
2
(g)+H⁺+e⁻
HClO
2
(aq)
+1.19
2IO
3
+12H⁺+10e⁻
I
2
(s)+6H₂O
+1.20
ClO
4
+2H⁺+2e⁻
ClO
3
+H₂O
+1.20
O
2
(g)+4H⁺+4e⁻
2H₂O+1.229[19]
MnO
2
(s)+4H⁺+2e⁻
Mn2+
+2H₂O
+1.23
[HXeO
4
]
+3H₂O+6e⁻
Xe(g)+7OH⁻+1.24[30]
Tl3+
+2e⁻
Tl+
+1.25
Cr
2
O2−
7
+14H⁺+6e⁻
2Cr3+
+7H₂O
+1.33
Cl
2
(g)+2e⁻
2Cl
+1.36[19]
CoO
2
(s)+4H⁺+e⁻
Co3+
+2H₂O
+1.42
2NH3OH+
+H⁺+2e⁻
N
2
H+
5
+2H₂O
+1.42[16]
2HIO(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻I
2
(s)+2H₂O
+1.44
Ce4+
+e⁻
Ce3+
+1.44
BrO
3
+5H⁺+4e⁻
HBrO(aq)+2H₂O+1.45
β-PbO
2
(s)+4H⁺+2e⁻
Pb2+
+2H₂O
+1.460[25]
α-PbO
2
(s)+4H⁺+2e⁻
Pb2+
+2H₂O
+1.468[25]
2BrO
3
+12H⁺+10e⁻
Br
2
(l)+6H₂O
+1.48
2ClO
3
+12H⁺+10e⁻
Cl
2
(g)+6H₂O
+1.49
氧(超氧)HO
2
+H⁺+e⁻
H
2
O
2
+1.495[13]
MnO
4
+8H⁺+5e⁻
Mn2+
+4H₂O
+1.51
HO
2
•+H⁺+e⁻
H
2
O
2
(aq)
+1.51
Au3+
+3e⁻
Au(s)+1.52
NiO
2
(s)+4H⁺+2e⁻
Ni2+
+2OH⁻
+1.59
HClO(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻Cl
2
(g)+2H₂O
+1.63
Ag
2
O
3
(s)+6H⁺+4e⁻
2Ag+
+3H₂O
+1.67
HClO
2
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
HClO(aq)+H₂O+1.67
Pb4+
+2e⁻
Pb2+
+1.69[25]
MnO
4
+4H⁺+3e⁻
MnO
2
(s)+2H₂O
+1.70
AgO(s)+2H⁺+e⁻Ag+
+H₂O
+1.77
氧(過氧)H
2
O
2
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
2H₂O+1.776
Co3+
+e⁻
Co2+
+1.82
Au+
+e⁻
Au(s)+1.83[25]
BrO
4
+2H⁺+2e⁻
BrO
3
+H₂O
+1.85
Ag2+
+e⁻
Ag+
+1.98[25]
氧(過氧)S
2
O2−
8
+2e⁻
2SO2−
4
+2.07
O
3
(g)+2H⁺+2e⁻
O
2
(g)+H₂O
+2.075[21]
HMnO
4
+3H⁺+2e⁻
MnO
2
(s)+2H₂O
+2.09
XeO
3
(aq)+6H⁺+6e⁻
Xe(g)+3H₂O+2.12[30]
氧(氟氧)OF₂+2H⁺+4e⁻2F
+H₂O
+2.153[13]
H
4
XeO
6
(aq)+8H⁺+8e⁻
Xe(g)+6H₂O+2.18[30]
FeO2−
4
+8H⁺+3e⁻
Fe3+
+4H₂O
+2.20[32]
XeF
2
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
Xe(g)+2HF(aq)+2.32[30]
H
4
XeO
6
(aq)+2H⁺+2e⁻
XeO
3
(aq)+H₂O
+2.42[30]
F
2
(g)+2e⁻
2F+2.87[25][19]
F
2
(g)+2H⁺+2e⁻
2HF(aq)+3.05[25]
Tb4+
+e⁻
Tb3+
+3.05[13]
  1. ^ Safari的v.4.0.3或更早版本(v4.0.5可正常工作)上单击这一列可能不会工作。在这种情况下仅仅需要刷新页面恢复原始顺序。

參見编辑

参考资料编辑

  1. ^ Milazzo, G., Caroli, S., and Sharma, V. K. (1978). Tables of Standard Electrode Potentials (Wiley, Chichester).
  2. ^ Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  3. ^ Bratsch, S. G. (1989). Journal of Physical Chemistry Reference Data Vol. 18, pp. 1–21.
  4. ^ Vanýsek, Petr (2006). "Electrochemical Series," in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 87th Edition页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Chemical Rubber Company).
  5. ^ Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Chemical Rubber Company).
  6. ^ Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. Chemistry of the Elements 2nd. Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. 1997. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4. 
  7. ^ Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  8. ^ Marcel Pourbaix (1966). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions (NACE International, Houston, Texas; Cebelcor, Brussels).
  9. ^ Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Milazzo, G., Caroli, S., and Sharma, V. K. (1978). Tables of Standard Electrode Potentials (Wiley, Chichester).
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Bratsch, S. G. (1989). Journal of Physical Chemistry Reference Data Vol. 18, pp. 1–21.
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Ca Sr Ba一價[11]與兩價間的標準電極電勢正好有規律關係,因此可以估計近似值
  13. ^ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 13.18 13.19 13.20 13.21 13.22 13.23 13.24 13.25 13.26 13.27 13.28 13.29 13.30 13.31 13.32 13.33 13.34 13.35 13.36 Standard Redox Potential Table. [2012-01-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-02-06). 
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Lide, David R. (编), CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 87th, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8493-0487-3 
  15. ^ Greenwood and Earnshaw, p. 1263
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. Chemistry of the Elements 2nd. Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. 1997. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4. 
  17. ^ 17.00 17.01 17.02 17.03 17.04 17.05 17.06 17.07 17.08 17.09 17.10 17.11 17.12 17.13 17.14 17.15 17.16 17.17 17.18 17.19 17.20 17.21 17.22 17.23 17.24 17.25 17.26 17.27 17.28 17.29 17.30 Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Chemical Rubber Company).
  18. ^ Vanýsek, Petr (2006). "Electrochemical Series," in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 87th Edition页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) (Chemical Rubber Company).
  19. ^ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 Peter Atkins (1997). Physical Chemistry, 6th edition (W.H. Freeman and Company, New York).
  20. ^ Ti Zr Hf 的標準電極電勢變化較規律,因此可估計 Rf的標準電極電勢
  21. ^ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 21.10 Bard, A.J., Faulkner, L.R.(2001). Electrochemical Methods. Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd edition (John Wiley and Sons Inc).
  22. ^ Gordon Aylward & Tristan Findlay (2008). "SI Chemical Data", 6th edition (John Wiley & Sons, Australia), ISBN 9780470816387.
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 Vanýsek, Petr (2007). “Electrochemical Series”, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics: 88th Edition (Chemical Rubber Company).
  24. ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements | Iron | compounds information. [2012-01-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-01-18). 
  25. ^ 25.00 25.01 25.02 25.03 25.04 25.05 25.06 25.07 25.08 25.09 25.10 25.11 25.12 25.13 25.14 25.15 25.16 25.17 25.18 Bard, A. J., Parsons, R., and Jordan, J. (1985). Standard Potentials in Aqueous Solutions (Marcel Dekker, New York).
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 由−0.454和(2×−0.499+−0.508)÷3=−0.502推算出。
  27. ^ “Glyoxal Bisulfite”页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Organic Syntheses, Collected Volume 3, p.438 (1955).
  28. ^ Marcel Pourbaix (1966). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions (NACE International, Houston, Texas; Cebelcor, Brussels).
  29. ^ Connelly, Neil G.; Geiger, William E. Chemical Redox Agents for Organometallic Chemistry. Chemical Reviews. 1 January 1996, 96 (2): 877–910. PMID 11848774. doi:10.1021/cr940053x. 
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements | Xenon | compounds information. [2012-01-14]. (原始内容存档于2021-03-22). 
  31. ^ Cotton, F. Albert; Wilkinson, Geoffrey; Murillo, Carlos A.; Bochmann, Manfred, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry 6th, New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1999, ISBN 0-471-19957-5 
  32. ^ Redox Reactions, Western Oregon University website. [2012-01-15]. (原始内容存档于2019-08-30).